Hamid Syed
Professor Bradley
8 December 2012
CHEM 367
The Effects of Drugs and Diseases on Neurochemistry
Introduction
Neurochemistry and other sciences associated with the workings of the human brain are probably the most studied topics over the past few decades in the world of science and health. Many researchers recently have been and are asking the questions at the forefront of the situation: How does the brain work? Where do feelings come from? How do drugs affect the brain? Where does consciousness come from? Where do thoughts occur from? These questions can be quite puzzling for researchers in the field, but at the same time, there have been many new discoveries in the fields of neurochemistry, neurobiology, and neurology in general (Hildebrand). These findings have helped and continue to help researchers to better understand the mysterious workings of the human brain ("Neurochemistry," Wikipedia). Neurochemistry is defined scientifically as “the specific study of neurochemicals, which include neurotransmitters and other molecules such as neuro-active drugs that influence neuron function." Neurochemicals are organic molecules that are involved in nueral or brain activity ("Neurochemical," Wikipedia). Some common examples of neurochemicals include dopamine, seratonin, glutamate, and acetylcholine ("What is Neurotransmitter").
Neurotransmitters work by attaching itself to a receptor, which in turn causes an ion pathway to open. The action potential spark is then transmitted across the synapse, enabling the action potential to jump from neuron to neuron, carrying its information around as it goes ("Neurotransmitters"). The role of the neurotransmitter in this scenario is to attach the synapses so that this action potential to easily cross ("What is Neurotransmitter"). After this process is complete, the neurotransmitter is usually reabsorbed by the neuron in a process known as reuptake. Neurotransmitters can have either inhibitory or stimulatory effects on their subjects ("Neurochemical," Wikipedia). These reactions and synapse transport with neurotransmitters can also be time based, with some neurotransmitters traveling extremely quickly, while others travel quite slowly (Powers). Some certain common neurotransmitters like serotonin and dopamine carry both functions. The inhibitory neurotransmitter blocks the neuron’s activity following the synapse, while the stimulatory neurotransmitter encourages activity in the neuron following the synapse ("What is Neurotransmitter").
Neurochemistry is made up of all the different chemical functions that occur in the brain. The functions of neurochemistry control nearly all of our day to day activities including locomotion (movement), speech, thought, and regulation, among other functions ("Brain Chemistry (Neurochemistry)"). Different drugs have different effects on how the brain neurochemistry changes. Narcotics, antidepressants, medicines, and other abused all can potentially react with neurochemicals and neurotransmitters go on to changes the brain’s normal neurochemistry. Certain drugs are often given to alter neurochemistry with the goal of killing pain or inducing sleep, for example. Other times, harmful and often abused drugs are taken with the goal of inducing a high. This case also greatly alters the neurochemistry of the brain. After repeated and sustained use (or abuse), the brain’s neurochemistry could potentially be permanently altered by these drugs. It is also important to note that some categories and classes of drugs affect neurochemistry in vastly different manners. Several diseases also have demonstrate differences in neurochemistry. Schizophrenia, autism, and dementia are just a few examples of diseases that alter the normal neurochemistry. One of the challenges of healthcare in today’s world is finding ways and techniques to prevent this alteration of brain neurochemistry from proceeding in the first place. Even further, it may be possible to reverse this process of deteriorating neurochemistry. At a basic level, mental or neurological diseases are generally caused by improper imbalances in the amount of neurochemicals in the brain. I feel that understanding neurochemistry and its related sciences is very important and at the forefront in the current day and age (Powers). The possibilities for research and solutions that come out of that research are very exciting due to their potential applications in medicine and healthcare as a whole. Understanding neurochemicals and neurotransmitters and having the ability to manipulate them properly has immense potential in leading to a healthier tomorrow.
Disease Relationship to Neurochemistry
In my opinion, diseases are one of the most obvious factors that can and do vastly affect a person’s neurochemistry. These diseases alter how neurotransmitters and neurochemicals behave, causing symptoms that are associated with neural and brain diseases including schizophrenia and dementia, among others (Reynolds). These types of neurodegenerative diseases come about due to the death of or loss of neurons, and by extension, the necessary neurotransmitters and neurochemicals ("Neurodegeneration"). For example, in schizophrenia, dopamine behaves differently than it normally does. This misbehavior causes dopamine to be released abnormally, as shown in the figure below (Reynolds). To further understand this point, it is likely beneficial to understand more about the catecholamine neurotransmitter, dopamine. Dopamine, commonly known as ‘DA,’ is heavily involved in the actions of controlling movement and locomotion in organisms ("Dopamine," Wikipedia). Vallone and her team go on to note and degeneration and deficiency in the functions of dopamine result in the onset of another well known neural disease, Parkinson’s disease. Dopamine is also involved in misbehavior with regards to other neural diseases including the following: Tourette’s syndrome, attention deficit hyperactive disorder (commonly known as ADHD), and the growth of various tumors. With regards to attention deficit hyperactive disorder, dopamine behavior is also slightly altered from normal due to the gene that causes this neural condition ("Neurodegeneration"). The method of slowing down the hyperactive activity of those with the ADHD condition entails slowing down the progress of dopamine as it proceeds with its normal functions and activity. The majority of the testing of ADHD’s effects on dopamine receptors occurred by using mice as the test subjects (Vallone et. al.).
("Dopamine," Wikipedia)
Severe dementia is another neural disease or condition that involves taking neurochemistry and its related neurochemicals into account. Of the types of dementia, Alzheimer’s disease, which is also known as ‘AD,’ comprises the majority of dementia cases. Studies show that the cause for Alzheimer’s disease, which comprises loss of memory among other symptoms, is due to the death of various neurological cells. Causing this is the degeneration of various important neurotransmitters and neurochemicals including glutamate, acetylcholine, serotinin, and noradrenaline ("Neurotransmitter," Wikipedia). Dopamine, the most common neurotransmitter and neurochemical, is generally free of blame in the case of Alzheimer’s disease unlike in the cases of the diseases like attention deficit hyperactive disorder and Parkinson’s disease mentioned above ("Dopamine," Physchology Today). The most recognized neurochemical involved in the functions of mental cognition and memory is glutamate. It comes as little surprise then, that dysfunction and misbehavior of the glutamate neurotransmission process leads to problems in cognition and memory, which is typical of patients with Alzheimer’s disease and other levels of dementia. A close correlation has also been noted and observed between the severity of the dementia and the extent of the disfunction of the glutamate neurotransmission processes. The relationship between the extent of serotonin neurotransmission decrease and the severity of the Alzheimer’s disease is the same as the relationship mentioned above between glutamate and dementia ("Neurodegeneration"). Correlations like these are extremely important in discovering more and more about diseases. Eventually, further information such as and similar to this will hopefully enable medical professionals and scientists to develop drugs that reverse this pointed deterioration of various neurotransmitters and thereby reducing the general amount of dementia and the severity of diseases like Alzheimer’s disease (Sharp et. al.). This specific study speaks a lot to me personally as a close relative of mine has Alzheimer’s disease, so I definitely feel that research such as this are extremely beneficial and encouraging.
Effects of Drugs on Neurochemistry
The common neurotransmitter dopamine is also hard at work when it comes to the brain’s reward system with relation to drugs and alcohol. One of the main reasons that people take drugs of abuse and alcohol is to experience the ‘high’ that is associated with the experience of drugs and alcohol. This ‘high’ comes from the brain’s reward system that manipulates dopamine (Vallone et. al.). Many recent studies have delved into the idea that mothers who have a history of drug abuse, cocaine in particular, tend to damage the bond between the child and the mother through various manifestations. The abuse of cocaine can particularly be harmful in that it can cause permanent alterations to the mother’s brain, and some of these problems can even be passed on to the unborn child due to the child’s close bond to the mother in the womb. Testing with rats showed that maternal rats who were exposed to cocaine displayed negligence and even aggression towards their offspring after birth. Dopamine again is involved here, as cocaine inhibits it from acting properly. This in turn causes impaired maternal care by the rats. There are various different studies about human mothers and cocaine and their relationships with their children. Many of these reports seem to contradict each other to some extent. However, the author of this article concludes that after the various studies and reports are reconciled, they seem to point to the idea that maternal care is impaired by cocaine use, and the extent of this impairment is affected by several risk factors including depression. Overall, mothers that indulged in cocaine abuse were generally more negligent to their children, and also tended to be more aggressive. This could likely also lead to neurochemical and psychological problems in the offspring due to this sustained care both in and out of the womb of a mother under the influence of cocaine (Nephew and Febo). Microdialysis is a neurochemical procedure that studies the changes in neurochemistry in the brain over a period of time. This is primarily used to determine if a permanent change occurs in the brain’s neurochemistry after sustained use or abuse of a drug or after an addiction phase. The glutamate neurotransmitter is thought to be involved in the brain’s process of long term learning. It was discovered through tests again involving rats that sustained use of cocaine resulted in alterations in the neurotransmissions of glutamate in terms of relapse. As a general rule, all abused drugs increase the release of the dopamine neurotransmitter in the brain, jump starting the brain’s reward system ("Neurochemistry of Addiction"). Dopamine is also the culprit when it comes to the effects of certain drugs in neurochemistry, for example cocaine and amphetamine. The dopamine reward system is manipulated by these drugs through blocking the reuptake process from occurring. This means that more dopamine is left out and available, causing the euphoria associated with these abused drugs (“Dopamine,” International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences).
Microdialysis has many possible uses that can be fine tuned to become proper treatments to reverse long term or chronic use or abuse of drugs (Torregrossa and Kalivas). It is highly that cocaine relies upon and affects several neurotransmission pathways, not just the general dopamine pathway. It is also quite possible that another common neurotransmitter, serotonin, is involved in this activity with cocaine. Cocaine is well known for its ability to to inhibit uptake of the various neurotransmitters, which in turn causes abnormal activity by the neurotransmission process. With serotonin specifically, it is not known or understood for sure how exactly cocaine affects its uptake process (Wolf and Kuhn). Abuse of anabolic steroids has been shown to alter the neurotransmission activities of the brain. Studies have shown that in several organisms including mice, hamsters, and humans, aggression has increased, which also proves the point that alterations have taken place neurologically (Frahm et. al.). In an experiment on rats testing the effects of both cathinone and amphetamine on neurotransmitter levels, it was discovered that the amount of the dopamine neurotransmitter increased in proportion to the amount of cathinone and amphetamine that was given. These drugs inhibited the ability of dopamine uptake to occur, which means that more of the dopamine neurochemical was left to float around in the brain (Pehek et. al.). Cocaine is an inhibiting drug that blocks the binding sites of enzymes, causing reactions to occur very slowly or not at all (Kovacic and Cooksy). Therapeutic effects are released by dopamine through the means of stimulants. These dopamine highs stimulate people and could possibly be addictive (Caplan et. al.). Out of all drugs, marijuana and cannibis often pose as the most controversial drugs.
Many people claim that it is harmless to the brain neurochemically and pain killing, yet studies are very adamant that cannibis encourages mindless behavior and potential for chronic misuse that can end up damaging the brain neurochemically. It was discovered that the patient who had used marijuana daily for a year had different levels of neurochemicals than at the beginning of the year. This proves that cannibis does, in fact, affect brain neurochemistry regardless of the many claims to the contrary. The methods used for brain imaging are extremely important in understanding how the brain works and changes. It can possibly lead to revolution in the drug abuse field, with changes in the way drug abuse cases are treated completely. The amount of possible advancements in this area are very exciting (Licata and Renshaw). Different types of drugs and chemicals affect the brain neurochemistry is vastly different ways. For example, alcohol works upon several neurotransmitters, while the neurochemical adenosine is shut down by caffeine. Thagard mentions four basic ways that drugs can affect neurotransmitters and neurochemicals: through inhibition of the synthesis of a neurotransmitter or neurochemical, through inhibition or stimulation of the release of the neurotransmitter, through stimulation or inhibition of receptors, or finally through inhibition of neurotransmitter uptake. As there are a plethora of neurotransmitters and neurochemicals, numbering more than one hundred, it is important to understand them and their functions. People drink alcohol to experience the reward of the brain’s pleasure center, which is triggered when extra and excess dopamine is released into the brain. And this is just one of many mechanisms that can occur between outside drugs or chemicals and neurotransmitters or neurochemicals. These reaction stimulations and inhibitions are immensely important when it comes to understanding the various neurotransmission responses that occur in reaction to the presence of these drugs (Thagard). Neurochemistry change in the brain can be manifested in the fact that when an individual take a drug consistently, he or she must take more of the drug in order to achieve the same ‘high.’ This is due to the brain’s neurotransmission adapting to the individual’s usage of the drug, which causes it to further regulate the amount of dopamine caused to be released by this drug ("Neurochemistry of Addiction").
Conclusion
The brain is easily the most important part of the nervous system, and at the center of the neurological workings of the brain is neurochemistry. Neurochemistry explains how the different neurochemicals and neurotransmitters interact with other chemicals in order to controls the body’s actions and other mental capabilities ("Introduction to Diet and Brain Neurochemistry”). Neurochemistry also details some of the mysteries of the brain, including speech and hearing ("Brain Chemistry (Neurochemistry)"). Neurochemistry details how neurochemicals and neurotransmitters behave in order to maintain brain function. It is very important to note that changes in neurotransmitter balances or imbalances can lead to massive swings in cognition, behavior, mood, and perception (“Neurotransmitters”).
As has been shown from the many studies above, neurochemistry is greatly affected by different diseases and drugs in many different manners. There are also many different mechanisms that occur which also alter the brain’s neurochemistry. It wasn’t until quite recently that neurochemistry and other related neurological sciences were beginning to be studied (Hildebrand). Since studies in this specific field have begun, many giant leaps and bounds have been made in discovering new information and in applying these new discoveries in the medical and healthcare scene. The future looks promising for those who may have family histories of neurological diseases or disorders. It is not a far fetched idea to think that within the next few decades, scientists, researchers, physicians, and other medical professionals will be well on their way to developing cures or treatments to deal with neurological disorders and diseases like Alzeimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, and dementia. Dopamine is just one specific very common neurotransmitter that is heavily implicated in the causes for neurodegenerative diseases including Parkinson’s disease and schizophrenia. In each case for these two neurodegenerative diseases, dopamine levels are abnormal in that there is either too little or too much dopamine available, respectively (“Dopamine,” International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences). Similar situations occur with different diseases and their relationships with different neurotransmitters and neurochemicals.
I feel that the information available on the topics of neurochemistry specifically, and neurology in general, show that there is a great deal known in this field, but a far greater amount still left unknown. I feel that this may just be one of the current research fields that are of paramount importance. There is a vast amount of research to be done that will help humans to better understand the brain and its capabilities and strengths as well as its limitations and deficiencies. Learning more about specific neurotransmitters and neurochemicals can also be a very interesting topic, as these chemicals could possibly be isolated and harnessed outside of the brain in different ways. Also, the other obvious advancements that could probably be made include developing techniques and medical procedures to monitor, control, and balance neurotransmitter and neurochemical levels. This could potentially drastically reduce the prevalence of neurodegenerative diseases to a very low level. This advancement could also possibly limit the negative effects of abused drugs on the brain’s neurochemistry. Overall, this would lead to a much more mentally healthy society and world.
In conclusion, neurochemistry is an extremely interesting and potentially valuable topic. Researching further into it can enable us to learn about the entity within ourselves that makes us human. The potential medical advancements through this field are nearly limitless in terms of quantity, quality, and benefit. Dr. Thomas Holme put it in the best and most eloquent way when he wrote, “The fact that one can read this text, remember what has been read, and even breathe during the entire time that these events take place relies on the amazing chemistry that occurs in the human brain and the nerve cells with which it communicates (Holme).”
Caplan, Jason P., Lucy A. Epstein, Davin K. Quinn, Jonathan R. Stevens, and Theodore A. Stern. "Neuropsychiatric Effects of Prescription Drug Abuse." Neuropsychology Review 17.3 (2007): 363-80. DOI: 10.1007/s11065-007-9037-7
Frahm, Krystle A., Augustus R. Lumia, Elizabeth Fernandez, Randy Strong, James L. Roberts, and Marilyn Y. McGinnis. "Effects of Anabolic Androgenic Steroids and Social Subjugation on Behavior and Neurochemistry in Male Rats." Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior 97.3 (2011): 416-22. DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2010.09.015.
Hildebrand, John G. "Chemical neurobiology; an introduction to neurochemistry." Science 233 (1986): 1101+. Academic OneFile. Web. 8 Dec. 2012. DOI: 10.1126/science.233.4768.1101-a
Kovacic, P., and A. Cooksy. "Unifying Mechanism for Toxicity and Addiction by Abused Drugs: Electron Transfer and Reactive Oxygen Species." Medical Hypotheses 64.2 (2005): 357-66. DOI: 10.1016/j.mehy.2004.07.021.
Licata, Stephanie, and Perry Renshaw. "Neurochemistry of Drug Action." Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1187 (2010): 148-71. DOI: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.2009.05143.x.
Nephew, Benjamin, and Marcelo Febo. "Effects of Cocaine on Maternal Behavior and Neurochemistry." Current Neuropharmacology 10.1 (2012): 53-63. DOI: 10.2174/157015912799362760.
Pehek, E., M. Schechter, and B. Yamamoto. "Effects of Cathinone and Amphetamine on the Neurochemistry of Dopamine in Vivo." Neuropharmacology 29.12 (1990): 1171-176. DOI: 10.1016/0028-3908(90)90041-O.
Sharp, Sally I., Paul T. Francis, and Clive G. Ballard. "Neurochemistry of Severe Dementia." Reviews in Clinical Gerontology 15.02 (2005): 105-23. DOI: 10.1017/S0959259805001681.
Torregrossa, Mary M., and Peter W. Kalivas. "Microdialysis and the Neurochemistry of Addiction." Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior 90.2 (2008): 261-72. DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2007.09.001.
Vallone, Daniela, Roberto Picetti, and Emiliana Borrelli. "Structure and Function of Dopamine Receptors." Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews 24.1 (2000): 125-32. ScienceDirect. DOI: 10.1016/S0149-7634(99)00063-9.
Professor Bradley
8 December 2012
CHEM 367
The Effects of Drugs and Diseases on Neurochemistry
Introduction
Neurochemistry and other sciences associated with the workings of the human brain are probably the most studied topics over the past few decades in the world of science and health. Many researchers recently have been and are asking the questions at the forefront of the situation: How does the brain work? Where do feelings come from? How do drugs affect the brain? Where does consciousness come from? Where do thoughts occur from? These questions can be quite puzzling for researchers in the field, but at the same time, there have been many new discoveries in the fields of neurochemistry, neurobiology, and neurology in general (Hildebrand). These findings have helped and continue to help researchers to better understand the mysterious workings of the human brain ("Neurochemistry," Wikipedia). Neurochemistry is defined scientifically as “the specific study of neurochemicals, which include neurotransmitters and other molecules such as neuro-active drugs that influence neuron function." Neurochemicals are organic molecules that are involved in nueral or brain activity ("Neurochemical," Wikipedia). Some common examples of neurochemicals include dopamine, seratonin, glutamate, and acetylcholine ("What is Neurotransmitter").
Neurotransmitters work by attaching itself to a receptor, which in turn causes an ion pathway to open. The action potential spark is then transmitted across the synapse, enabling the action potential to jump from neuron to neuron, carrying its information around as it goes ("Neurotransmitters"). The role of the neurotransmitter in this scenario is to attach the synapses so that this action potential to easily cross ("What is Neurotransmitter"). After this process is complete, the neurotransmitter is usually reabsorbed by the neuron in a process known as reuptake. Neurotransmitters can have either inhibitory or stimulatory effects on their subjects ("Neurochemical," Wikipedia). These reactions and synapse transport with neurotransmitters can also be time based, with some neurotransmitters traveling extremely quickly, while others travel quite slowly (Powers). Some certain common neurotransmitters like serotonin and dopamine carry both functions. The inhibitory neurotransmitter blocks the neuron’s activity following the synapse, while the stimulatory neurotransmitter encourages activity in the neuron following the synapse ("What is Neurotransmitter").
Neurochemistry is made up of all the different chemical functions that occur in the brain. The functions of neurochemistry control nearly all of our day to day activities including locomotion (movement), speech, thought, and regulation, among other functions ("Brain Chemistry (Neurochemistry)"). Different drugs have different effects on how the brain neurochemistry changes. Narcotics, antidepressants, medicines, and other abused all can potentially react with neurochemicals and neurotransmitters go on to changes the brain’s normal neurochemistry. Certain drugs are often given to alter neurochemistry with the goal of killing pain or inducing sleep, for example. Other times, harmful and often abused drugs are taken with the goal of inducing a high. This case also greatly alters the neurochemistry of the brain. After repeated and sustained use (or abuse), the brain’s neurochemistry could potentially be permanently altered by these drugs. It is also important to note that some categories and classes of drugs affect neurochemistry in vastly different manners. Several diseases also have demonstrate differences in neurochemistry. Schizophrenia, autism, and dementia are just a few examples of diseases that alter the normal neurochemistry. One of the challenges of healthcare in today’s world is finding ways and techniques to prevent this alteration of brain neurochemistry from proceeding in the first place. Even further, it may be possible to reverse this process of deteriorating neurochemistry. At a basic level, mental or neurological diseases are generally caused by improper imbalances in the amount of neurochemicals in the brain. I feel that understanding neurochemistry and its related sciences is very important and at the forefront in the current day and age (Powers). The possibilities for research and solutions that come out of that research are very exciting due to their potential applications in medicine and healthcare as a whole. Understanding neurochemicals and neurotransmitters and having the ability to manipulate them properly has immense potential in leading to a healthier tomorrow.
Disease Relationship to Neurochemistry
In my opinion, diseases are one of the most obvious factors that can and do vastly affect a person’s neurochemistry. These diseases alter how neurotransmitters and neurochemicals behave, causing symptoms that are associated with neural and brain diseases including schizophrenia and dementia, among others (Reynolds). These types of neurodegenerative diseases come about due to the death of or loss of neurons, and by extension, the necessary neurotransmitters and neurochemicals ("Neurodegeneration"). For example, in schizophrenia, dopamine behaves differently than it normally does. This misbehavior causes dopamine to be released abnormally, as shown in the figure below (Reynolds). To further understand this point, it is likely beneficial to understand more about the catecholamine neurotransmitter, dopamine. Dopamine, commonly known as ‘DA,’ is heavily involved in the actions of controlling movement and locomotion in organisms ("Dopamine," Wikipedia). Vallone and her team go on to note and degeneration and deficiency in the functions of dopamine result in the onset of another well known neural disease, Parkinson’s disease. Dopamine is also involved in misbehavior with regards to other neural diseases including the following: Tourette’s syndrome, attention deficit hyperactive disorder (commonly known as ADHD), and the growth of various tumors. With regards to attention deficit hyperactive disorder, dopamine behavior is also slightly altered from normal due to the gene that causes this neural condition ("Neurodegeneration"). The method of slowing down the hyperactive activity of those with the ADHD condition entails slowing down the progress of dopamine as it proceeds with its normal functions and activity. The majority of the testing of ADHD’s effects on dopamine receptors occurred by using mice as the test subjects (Vallone et. al.).
("Dopamine," Wikipedia)
Severe dementia is another neural disease or condition that involves taking neurochemistry and its related neurochemicals into account. Of the types of dementia, Alzheimer’s disease, which is also known as ‘AD,’ comprises the majority of dementia cases. Studies show that the cause for Alzheimer’s disease, which comprises loss of memory among other symptoms, is due to the death of various neurological cells. Causing this is the degeneration of various important neurotransmitters and neurochemicals including glutamate, acetylcholine, serotinin, and noradrenaline ("Neurotransmitter," Wikipedia). Dopamine, the most common neurotransmitter and neurochemical, is generally free of blame in the case of Alzheimer’s disease unlike in the cases of the diseases like attention deficit hyperactive disorder and Parkinson’s disease mentioned above ("Dopamine," Physchology Today). The most recognized neurochemical involved in the functions of mental cognition and memory is glutamate. It comes as little surprise then, that dysfunction and misbehavior of the glutamate neurotransmission process leads to problems in cognition and memory, which is typical of patients with Alzheimer’s disease and other levels of dementia. A close correlation has also been noted and observed between the severity of the dementia and the extent of the disfunction of the glutamate neurotransmission processes. The relationship between the extent of serotonin neurotransmission decrease and the severity of the Alzheimer’s disease is the same as the relationship mentioned above between glutamate and dementia ("Neurodegeneration"). Correlations like these are extremely important in discovering more and more about diseases. Eventually, further information such as and similar to this will hopefully enable medical professionals and scientists to develop drugs that reverse this pointed deterioration of various neurotransmitters and thereby reducing the general amount of dementia and the severity of diseases like Alzheimer’s disease (Sharp et. al.). This specific study speaks a lot to me personally as a close relative of mine has Alzheimer’s disease, so I definitely feel that research such as this are extremely beneficial and encouraging.
Effects of Drugs on Neurochemistry
The common neurotransmitter dopamine is also hard at work when it comes to the brain’s reward system with relation to drugs and alcohol. One of the main reasons that people take drugs of abuse and alcohol is to experience the ‘high’ that is associated with the experience of drugs and alcohol. This ‘high’ comes from the brain’s reward system that manipulates dopamine (Vallone et. al.). Many recent studies have delved into the idea that mothers who have a history of drug abuse, cocaine in particular, tend to damage the bond between the child and the mother through various manifestations. The abuse of cocaine can particularly be harmful in that it can cause permanent alterations to the mother’s brain, and some of these problems can even be passed on to the unborn child due to the child’s close bond to the mother in the womb. Testing with rats showed that maternal rats who were exposed to cocaine displayed negligence and even aggression towards their offspring after birth. Dopamine again is involved here, as cocaine inhibits it from acting properly. This in turn causes impaired maternal care by the rats. There are various different studies about human mothers and cocaine and their relationships with their children. Many of these reports seem to contradict each other to some extent. However, the author of this article concludes that after the various studies and reports are reconciled, they seem to point to the idea that maternal care is impaired by cocaine use, and the extent of this impairment is affected by several risk factors including depression. Overall, mothers that indulged in cocaine abuse were generally more negligent to their children, and also tended to be more aggressive. This could likely also lead to neurochemical and psychological problems in the offspring due to this sustained care both in and out of the womb of a mother under the influence of cocaine (Nephew and Febo). Microdialysis is a neurochemical procedure that studies the changes in neurochemistry in the brain over a period of time. This is primarily used to determine if a permanent change occurs in the brain’s neurochemistry after sustained use or abuse of a drug or after an addiction phase. The glutamate neurotransmitter is thought to be involved in the brain’s process of long term learning. It was discovered through tests again involving rats that sustained use of cocaine resulted in alterations in the neurotransmissions of glutamate in terms of relapse. As a general rule, all abused drugs increase the release of the dopamine neurotransmitter in the brain, jump starting the brain’s reward system ("Neurochemistry of Addiction"). Dopamine is also the culprit when it comes to the effects of certain drugs in neurochemistry, for example cocaine and amphetamine. The dopamine reward system is manipulated by these drugs through blocking the reuptake process from occurring. This means that more dopamine is left out and available, causing the euphoria associated with these abused drugs (“Dopamine,” International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences).
Microdialysis has many possible uses that can be fine tuned to become proper treatments to reverse long term or chronic use or abuse of drugs (Torregrossa and Kalivas). It is highly that cocaine relies upon and affects several neurotransmission pathways, not just the general dopamine pathway. It is also quite possible that another common neurotransmitter, serotonin, is involved in this activity with cocaine. Cocaine is well known for its ability to to inhibit uptake of the various neurotransmitters, which in turn causes abnormal activity by the neurotransmission process. With serotonin specifically, it is not known or understood for sure how exactly cocaine affects its uptake process (Wolf and Kuhn). Abuse of anabolic steroids has been shown to alter the neurotransmission activities of the brain. Studies have shown that in several organisms including mice, hamsters, and humans, aggression has increased, which also proves the point that alterations have taken place neurologically (Frahm et. al.). In an experiment on rats testing the effects of both cathinone and amphetamine on neurotransmitter levels, it was discovered that the amount of the dopamine neurotransmitter increased in proportion to the amount of cathinone and amphetamine that was given. These drugs inhibited the ability of dopamine uptake to occur, which means that more of the dopamine neurochemical was left to float around in the brain (Pehek et. al.). Cocaine is an inhibiting drug that blocks the binding sites of enzymes, causing reactions to occur very slowly or not at all (Kovacic and Cooksy). Therapeutic effects are released by dopamine through the means of stimulants. These dopamine highs stimulate people and could possibly be addictive (Caplan et. al.). Out of all drugs, marijuana and cannibis often pose as the most controversial drugs.
Many people claim that it is harmless to the brain neurochemically and pain killing, yet studies are very adamant that cannibis encourages mindless behavior and potential for chronic misuse that can end up damaging the brain neurochemically. It was discovered that the patient who had used marijuana daily for a year had different levels of neurochemicals than at the beginning of the year. This proves that cannibis does, in fact, affect brain neurochemistry regardless of the many claims to the contrary. The methods used for brain imaging are extremely important in understanding how the brain works and changes. It can possibly lead to revolution in the drug abuse field, with changes in the way drug abuse cases are treated completely. The amount of possible advancements in this area are very exciting (Licata and Renshaw). Different types of drugs and chemicals affect the brain neurochemistry is vastly different ways. For example, alcohol works upon several neurotransmitters, while the neurochemical adenosine is shut down by caffeine. Thagard mentions four basic ways that drugs can affect neurotransmitters and neurochemicals: through inhibition of the synthesis of a neurotransmitter or neurochemical, through inhibition or stimulation of the release of the neurotransmitter, through stimulation or inhibition of receptors, or finally through inhibition of neurotransmitter uptake. As there are a plethora of neurotransmitters and neurochemicals, numbering more than one hundred, it is important to understand them and their functions. People drink alcohol to experience the reward of the brain’s pleasure center, which is triggered when extra and excess dopamine is released into the brain. And this is just one of many mechanisms that can occur between outside drugs or chemicals and neurotransmitters or neurochemicals. These reaction stimulations and inhibitions are immensely important when it comes to understanding the various neurotransmission responses that occur in reaction to the presence of these drugs (Thagard). Neurochemistry change in the brain can be manifested in the fact that when an individual take a drug consistently, he or she must take more of the drug in order to achieve the same ‘high.’ This is due to the brain’s neurotransmission adapting to the individual’s usage of the drug, which causes it to further regulate the amount of dopamine caused to be released by this drug ("Neurochemistry of Addiction").
Conclusion
The brain is easily the most important part of the nervous system, and at the center of the neurological workings of the brain is neurochemistry. Neurochemistry explains how the different neurochemicals and neurotransmitters interact with other chemicals in order to controls the body’s actions and other mental capabilities ("Introduction to Diet and Brain Neurochemistry”). Neurochemistry also details some of the mysteries of the brain, including speech and hearing ("Brain Chemistry (Neurochemistry)"). Neurochemistry details how neurochemicals and neurotransmitters behave in order to maintain brain function. It is very important to note that changes in neurotransmitter balances or imbalances can lead to massive swings in cognition, behavior, mood, and perception (“Neurotransmitters”).
As has been shown from the many studies above, neurochemistry is greatly affected by different diseases and drugs in many different manners. There are also many different mechanisms that occur which also alter the brain’s neurochemistry. It wasn’t until quite recently that neurochemistry and other related neurological sciences were beginning to be studied (Hildebrand). Since studies in this specific field have begun, many giant leaps and bounds have been made in discovering new information and in applying these new discoveries in the medical and healthcare scene. The future looks promising for those who may have family histories of neurological diseases or disorders. It is not a far fetched idea to think that within the next few decades, scientists, researchers, physicians, and other medical professionals will be well on their way to developing cures or treatments to deal with neurological disorders and diseases like Alzeimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, and dementia. Dopamine is just one specific very common neurotransmitter that is heavily implicated in the causes for neurodegenerative diseases including Parkinson’s disease and schizophrenia. In each case for these two neurodegenerative diseases, dopamine levels are abnormal in that there is either too little or too much dopamine available, respectively (“Dopamine,” International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences). Similar situations occur with different diseases and their relationships with different neurotransmitters and neurochemicals.
I feel that the information available on the topics of neurochemistry specifically, and neurology in general, show that there is a great deal known in this field, but a far greater amount still left unknown. I feel that this may just be one of the current research fields that are of paramount importance. There is a vast amount of research to be done that will help humans to better understand the brain and its capabilities and strengths as well as its limitations and deficiencies. Learning more about specific neurotransmitters and neurochemicals can also be a very interesting topic, as these chemicals could possibly be isolated and harnessed outside of the brain in different ways. Also, the other obvious advancements that could probably be made include developing techniques and medical procedures to monitor, control, and balance neurotransmitter and neurochemical levels. This could potentially drastically reduce the prevalence of neurodegenerative diseases to a very low level. This advancement could also possibly limit the negative effects of abused drugs on the brain’s neurochemistry. Overall, this would lead to a much more mentally healthy society and world.
In conclusion, neurochemistry is an extremely interesting and potentially valuable topic. Researching further into it can enable us to learn about the entity within ourselves that makes us human. The potential medical advancements through this field are nearly limitless in terms of quantity, quality, and benefit. Dr. Thomas Holme put it in the best and most eloquent way when he wrote, “The fact that one can read this text, remember what has been read, and even breathe during the entire time that these events take place relies on the amazing chemistry that occurs in the human brain and the nerve cells with which it communicates (Holme).”
References
"Brain Chemistry (Neurochemistry)." Human Diseases and Conditions. N.p., n.d. Web. 1 Dec. 2012. <http://www.humanillnesses.com/Behavioral-Health-A-Br/Brain-Chemistry-Neurochemistry.html>.
Caplan, Jason P., Lucy A. Epstein, Davin K. Quinn, Jonathan R. Stevens, and Theodore A. Stern. "Neuropsychiatric Effects of Prescription Drug Abuse." Neuropsychology Review 17.3 (2007): 363-80. DOI: 10.1007/s11065-007-9037-7
"Dopamine." International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences. 2008. Encyclopedia.com. 8 Dec. 2012<http://www.encyclopedia.com>.
"Dopamine." Psychology Today: Health, Help, Happiness Find a Therapist. N.p., n.d. Web. 5 Dec. 2012. <http://www.psychologytoday.com/basics/dopamine>.
"Dopamine." Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, 12 June 2012. Web. 2 Dec. 2012. <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dopamine>.
Frahm, Krystle A., Augustus R. Lumia, Elizabeth Fernandez, Randy Strong, James L. Roberts, and Marilyn Y. McGinnis. "Effects of Anabolic Androgenic Steroids and Social Subjugation on Behavior and Neurochemistry in Male Rats." Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior 97.3 (2011): 416-22. DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2010.09.015.
Hildebrand, John G. "Chemical neurobiology; an introduction to neurochemistry." Science 233 (1986): 1101+. Academic OneFile. Web. 8 Dec. 2012. DOI: 10.1126/science.233.4768.1101-a
Holme, Thomas A.. "Neurochemistry." Chemistry: Foundations and Applications. 2004. Encyclopedia.com. 7 Dec. 2012 <http://www.encyclopedia.com>.
"Introduction to Diet and Brain Neurochemistry." Child Wisdom. N.p., n.d. Web. 6 Dec. 2012. <http://www.childwisdom.org/dietbrain/>.
Kovacic, P., and A. Cooksy. "Unifying Mechanism for Toxicity and Addiction by Abused Drugs: Electron Transfer and Reactive Oxygen Species." Medical Hypotheses 64.2 (2005): 357-66. DOI: 10.1016/j.mehy.2004.07.021.
Licata, Stephanie, and Perry Renshaw. "Neurochemistry of Drug Action." Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1187 (2010): 148-71. DOI: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.2009.05143.x.
Nephew, Benjamin, and Marcelo Febo. "Effects of Cocaine on Maternal Behavior and Neurochemistry." Current Neuropharmacology 10.1 (2012): 53-63. DOI: 10.2174/157015912799362760.
"Neurochemical." Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, 12 July 2012. Web. 4 Dec. 2012. <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurochemical>.
"Neurochemistry of Addiction." AGORA. N.p., n.d. Web. 3 Dec. 2012. <http://www.agoraforlife.net/assets/documents/Neurochemistry_of_Addiction.pdf>.
"Neurochemistry." Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, 12 Jan. 2012. Web. 3 Dec. 2012. <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurochemistry>.
"Neurodegeneration - What Is Neurodegeneration?" News-Medical.net. N.p., n.d. Web. 7 Dec. 2012. <http://www.news-medical.net/health/Neurodegeneration-What-is-Neurodegeneration.aspx>.
"Neurotransmitter." Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, 12 July 2012. Web. 3 Dec. 2012. <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurotransmitter>.
"Neurotransmitters." Child Wisdom. N.p., n.d. Web. 6 Dec. 2012. <http://www.childwisdom.org/neurotransmitters/>.
Pehek, E., M. Schechter, and B. Yamamoto. "Effects of Cathinone and Amphetamine on the Neurochemistry of Dopamine in Vivo." Neuropharmacology 29.12 (1990): 1171-176. DOI: 10.1016/0028-3908(90)90041-O.
Powers, Jennifer L.. "Neurotransmitters." Chemistry: Foundations and Applications. 2004. Encyclopedia.com. 8 Dec. 2012 <http://www.encyclopedia.com>.
Reynolds, G. "The Neurochemistry of Schizophrenia." Psychiatry 7.10 (2008): 425-29. ScienceDirect. 10.1383/psyt.2005.4.10.21.
Riddle, David R.. "Neurochemistry." Encyclopedia of Aging. 2002. Encyclopedia.com. 8 Dec. 2012<http://www.encyclopedia.com>.
Sharp, Sally I., Paul T. Francis, and Clive G. Ballard. "Neurochemistry of Severe Dementia." Reviews in Clinical Gerontology 15.02 (2005): 105-23. DOI: 10.1017/S0959259805001681.
Thagard, Paul. "Your Brain on Drugs: Philosophical Implications." Psychology Today. N.p., n.d. Web. 2 Dec. 2012. <http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/hot-thought/201202/your-brain-drugs-philosophical-implications>.
Torregrossa, Mary M., and Peter W. Kalivas. "Microdialysis and the Neurochemistry of Addiction." Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior 90.2 (2008): 261-72. DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2007.09.001.
Vallone, Daniela, Roberto Picetti, and Emiliana Borrelli. "Structure and Function of Dopamine Receptors." Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews 24.1 (2000): 125-32. ScienceDirect. DOI: 10.1016/S0149-7634(99)00063-9.
"What Is Neurotransmitter?" GuideWhoIs. N.p., n.d. Web. 2 Dec. 2012. <http://guidewhois.com/2011/04/what-is-neurotransmitter/>.
Wolf, W., and D. Kuhn. "Cocaine and Serotonin Neurochemistry." Neurochemistry International 18.1 (1991): 33-38. DOI: 10.1016/0197-0186(91)90032-9.